United States policy and legislation on the exploration of natural resources of celestial bodies (international legal aspects)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu14.2022.109Abstract
The present article attempts to integrate and comprehensively analyze the main stages in the formation and development of the U. S. policy and legislation on the use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies. In connection with recent announcements — the new lunar space program “Artemis” launched by NASA in May 2019, negotiations on bilateral “Artemis Accords” with potential partners in May 2020 (concluded by the U. S. with several states in October 2020), and Donald Trump’s Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources — the article focuses on U. S. policy and legislation in the light of the principles and norms enshrined in the following space treaties: the Outer Space Treaty, 1967 (main space treaty), and the Moon Agreement, 1979. The authors, using historical-legal, formal-legal, and comparative legal methods, show the changing position of the U. S. taken by their delegation during the drafting of the aforementioned international treaties, and the U. S. authorities’’ constant adjustment of their national policy and legislation on the exploration of space and its natural resources. To clarify the initial U. S. Position on key aspects, the authors refer to the travaux preparatoires of both the Outer Space Treaty, 1967, and “uncertainty” (according to the U. S. authorities, which had been the active drafter at the time) of the Moon Agreement, 1979. Condensed opinions of leading space experts and famous researchers on international space law are submitted in the article resulting for the authors in: U. S. pursue destructive policy aiming at undermining enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty, 1967, fundamental basis of international space law.
Keywords:
United States space policy, United States space legislation, common heritage of mankind, space resources, international space law, exploitation of lunar resources
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Библиография
Ваньков, Александр В. 2018. «Статутное право и нормативные правовые акты исполнительной ветви власти США: юридическая природа и систематизация». Дис. … канд. юрид. наук, Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет.
Джакху, Рэм, Стивен Фриланд. 2017. «Статья II». Кельнский комментарий к космическому праву. Договор по космосу. В 3 т. Т. 1; пер. с англ. под ред. Стефана Хобэ, Бернхарда Шмидт-Тедда, Кай-Уве Шрогля, 123–153. Берлин: Берлинер Виссеншавтс-Ферлаг с разрешения организации «Волтерс Клувер Дойчланд ГмбХ».
Жуков, Геннадий П. 1982. Ответы доктора юридических наук, профессора Г. П. Жукова на вопросник, подготовленный председателем Комитета космического права, профессором, доктором Г. Гудхойсом для Монреальской конференции Ассоциации международного права 1982 г. Торонто.
Жуков, Геннадий П., Аслан Х. Абашидзе. 2020. Международное космическое право: учебник для бакалавриата и магистратуры. 2-е изд., стер. М.: Юрайт.
Хобэ, Стефан. 2017. “Статья I”. Кельнский комментарий к космическому праву. Договор по космосу. В 3 т. Т. 1; пер. с англ. под ред. Стефана Хобэ, Бернхарда Шмидт-Тедда, Кай-Уве Шрогля, 93–122. Берлин: Берлинер Виссеншавтс-Ферлаг с разрешения организации «Волтерс Клувер Дойчланд ГмбХ».
Черниченко, Станислав В. 1999. Теория международного права. В 2 т. Т. 1: Современные теоретические проблемы. М.: НИМП.
Baslar, Kemal. 1998. The concept of the common heritage of mankind in international law. Hague: Kluwer Law International.
Buttigieg, Jean. 2016. “Arvid Pardo — a diplomat with a mission”. Symposia Melitensia Number 12: 13–28.
Christensen, Ian A., Christopher D. Johnson. 2020. “Putting the White House executive order on space resources in an international context”. The Space Review. Дата обращения 27 апреля, 2020. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3932/1.
Christol, Carl Q. 1980. “The Common Heritage of Mankind Provision in the 1979 Agreement governing the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies”. The International Lawyer 14 (3): 429–483.
De Man, Philip. 2019. “Interpreting the UN Space Treaties as the basis for a sustainable regime of space resource exploration”. The Space Treaties at Crossroads: Considerations de Lege Ferenda, ed. by George D. Kyriakopoulos, Maria Manoli, 15–33. Cham: Springer.
Gorman, Alice. 2020. “How the EO is a rejection of longstanding principles”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 22 апреля, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-alice-gorman-onhow-the-eo-is-a-rejection-of-longstanding-principles.
Hanlon, Michelle. 2020. “How the Moon Agreement is finished”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 22 апреля, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-michelle-hanlon-on-how-themoon-agreement-is-finished.
Hobe, Stephan. 2019. Space Law. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft.
Johnson, Christopher. 2020. “How the U. S. seeks to be a pioneer in space resources norm development”.Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 24 апреля,2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executiveorder-christopher-johnson-on-how-the-u-s-seeks-to-be-a-pioneer-in-space-resources-norm-development.
Listner, Michael. 2020. “The EO’s bottom-up approach to rulemaking”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 20 апреля, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-michael-listner-onthe-eos-bottom-up-approach-to-rulemaking.
Marboe, Irmgard. 2015. “National space law”. The Handbook of Space Law, ed. by Frans von der Dunk, Fabio Tronchetti, 127–204. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publ.
Marquez, Peter. 2020. “The need for the EO”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 13 апреля, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-peter-marquez-on-the-need-for-the-eo.
Matignon, Louis de Gouyon. 2019b. “The Res Communis concept in space law”. Space Legal Issues. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-law-the-res-communis-conceptin-space-law.
O’Connell, Kevin. 2019. “Implementation of U. S. space traffic management policy”. Presentation of the US Department of Commerce United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, 56th Session, Vienna, Austria. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-05E.pdf.
Pace, Scott. 2017. “Space development, law, and value”. Lunch Keynote at the IISL Galloway Space Law Symposium, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C., USA. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://spacepolicyonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Scott-Pace-to-Galloway-FINAL.pdf.
Pershing, Abigail D. 2019. “Interpreting the Outer Space Treaty’s Non-Appropriation Principle: Customary International Law from 1967 to today”. The Yale Journal of International Law 44 (1): 149–178. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1697&context=yjil.
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe. 2020a. “33 minutes with Prof. Dr. Kai-Uwe Schrogl. Interviews by Torsten Kriening. Space Café WebTalk”. SpaceWatch.Global. Accessed May 26, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/05/space-cafe-webtalk-33-minutes-with-prof-dr-kai-uwe-schrogl-on-26-may-2020.
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe. 2020b. “The clarity of existing Space Law”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Дата обращения 17 апреля, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-john-sheldon-on-the-us-executive-order-1-2-2-2-2.
Suckow, Elizabeth. 2009. “NACA history”. NASA. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/naca.
Williams, Sylvia Maureen. 1987. “The Law of Outer Space and Natural Resources”. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 36 (1): 142–151. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/760465.pdf.
Wrench, John G. 2019. “Non-appropriation, no problem: The outer space treaty is ready for asteroid mining case”. Western Reserve Journal of International Law 51 (1): 437–462. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol51/iss1/11.
References
Baslar, Kemal. 1998. The concept of the common heritage of mankind in international law. Hague: Kluwer Law International.
Buttigieg, Jean. 2016. “Arvid Pardo — a diplomat with a mission”. Symposia Melitensia Number 12: 13–28.
Chernichenko, Stanislav V. 1999. Theory of International Law. In 2 vols, vol. 1: Modern theoretical problems. Moscow, NIMP Publ. (In Russian)
Christensen, Ian A., Christopher D. Johnson. 2020. “Putting the White House executive order on space resources in an international context”. The Space Review. Accessed April 27, 2020. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3932/1.
Christol, Carl Q. 1980. “The Common Heritage of Mankind Provision in the 1979 Agreement governing the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies”. The International Lawyer 14 (3): 429–483.
De Man, Philip. 2019. “Interpreting the UN Space Treaties as the basis for a sustainable regime of space resource exploration”. The Space Treaties at Crossroads: Considerations de Lege Ferenda, ed. by George D. Kyriakopoulos, Maria Manoli, 15–33. Cham: Springer.
Gorman, Alice. 2020. “How the EO is a rejection of longstanding principles”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 27, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-alice-gorman-onhow-the-eo-is-a-rejection-of-longstanding-principles.
Hanlon, Michelle. 2020. “How the Moon Agreement is finished”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 27, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-michelle-hanlon-on-how-themoon-agreement-is-finished.
Hobe, Stephan. 2019. Space Law. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft.
Jakhu, Ram S., Freeland, Steven. 2017. “Article II”. Kel’nskii kommentarii k kosmicheskomu pravu. Dogovor po kosmosu. In 3 vols, vol. 1. Rus. ed., eds Stephan Hobe, Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd, Kai-Uwe Schrogl, 123–153. Berlin, Berliner Vissenshavts-Ferlag s razresheniia organizatsii “Volters Kluver Doichland GmbKh” Publ. (In Russian)
Johnson, Christopher. 2020. “How the U. S. seeks to be a pioneer in space resources norm development”.Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 24, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executiveorder-christopher-johnson-on-how-the-u-s-seeks-to-be-a-pioneer-in-space-resources-norm-development.
Listner, Michael. 2020. “The EO’s bottom-up approach to rulemaking”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 20, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-michael-listner-onthe-eos-bottom-up-approach-to-rulemaking.
Marboe, Irmgard. 2015. “National space law”. The Handbook of Space Law, ed. by Frans von der Dunk, Fabio Tronchetti, 127–204. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publ.
Marquez, Peter. 2020. “The need for the EO”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 13, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-on-us-space-resources-executive-order-peter-marquez-on-the-need-for-the-eo.
Matignon, Louis de Gouyon. 2019b. “The Res Communis concept in space law”. Space Legal Issues. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-law-the-res-communis-conceptin-space-law.
O’Connell, Kevin. 2019. “Implementation of U. S. space traffic management policy”. Presentation of the US Department of Commerce United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, 56th Session, Vienna, Austria. Дата обращения 17 июня, 2020. https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-05E.pdf.
Pace, Scott. 2017. “Space development, law, and value”. Lunch Keynote at the IISL Galloway Space Law Symposium, Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C., USA. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://spacepolicyonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Scott-Pace-to-Galloway-FINAL.pdf.
Pershing, Abigail D. 2019. “Interpreting the Outer Space Treaty’s Non-Appropriation Principle: Customary International Law from 1967 to today”. The Yale Journal of International Law 44 (1): 149–178. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1697&context=yjil.
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe. 2020a. “33 minutes with Prof. Dr. Kai-Uwe Schrogl. Interviews by Torsten Kriening. Space Café WebTalk”. SpaceWatch.Global. Accessed May 26, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/05/space-cafe-webtalk-33-minutes-with-prof-dr-kai-uwe-schrogl-on-26-may-2020.
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe. 2020b. “The clarity of existing Space Law”. Perspective on US Space Resources Executive Order. Spacewatch. Global. Accessed April 17, 2020. https://spacewatch.global/2020/04/spacewatchgl-perspective-john-sheldon-on-the-us-executive-order-1-2-2-2-2.
Suckow, Elizabeth. 2009. “NACA history”. NASA. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/naca.
Van’kov, Aleksandr V. 2018. “Statutory Law and regulations of the US executive branch of government: Legal nature and systematization”. PhD diss., Permskii gosudarstvennyi natsional’nyi issledovatel’skii universitet. (In Russian)
Williams, Sylvia Maureen. 1987. “The Law of Outer Space and Natural Resources”. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 36 (1): 142–151. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/760465.pdf.
Wrench, John G. 2019. “Non-appropriation, no problem: The Outer Space Treaty is ready for asteroid mining case”. Western Reserve Journal of International Law 51 (1): 437–462. Accessed June 17, 2020. https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol51/iss1/11.
Zhukov, Gennadii P. 1982. The answers of Doctor of Law, Professor G. P. Zhukov to a questionnaire prepared by the Chairman of the Space Law Committee, Professor, Dr. G. Goodhoys for the Montreal Conference of the International Law Association in 1982. Toronto. (In Russian)
Zhukov, Gennadii P., Aslan Kh. Abashidze. 2020. International Space Law: textbook for undergraduate and graduate programs. 2nd ed., ster. Moscow, Iurait Publ. (In Russian)
Downloads
Published
2022-05-12
How to Cite
Abashidze, A. K., & Chernykh, I. A. (2022). United States policy and legislation on the exploration of natural resources of celestial bodies (international legal aspects). Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law, 13(1), 158–180. https://doi.org/10.21638/spbu14.2022.109
Issue
Section
Foreign and International Law
License
Articles of "Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law" are open access distributed under the terms of the License Agreement with Saint Petersburg State University, which permits to the authors unrestricted distribution and self-archiving free of charge.
